Communities in which criminal activities are common tend to establish criminal behavior as acceptable. Another had a large Nazi flag pinned to the wall of his apartment. Sumner, William Graham. For example, if police decide to focus on gun-related crimes chances are that more gun-related crimes will be discovered and counted. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or grandfathers. 16.5 End-of-Chapter Material; Chapter 17: Religion. Black, Donald. Wu et al. 2013). Research that takes into account the socioeconomic conditions of single-parent households and other risks, including disciplinary styles and problems in supervising and monitoring children, show that these other factors account for the differential outcomes in these families. Secondary victimization occurs when the women’s own sexual history and her willingness to consent are questioned in the process of laying charges and reaching a conviction, which as feminists pointed out, increased victims’ reluctance to lay charges. For example, teachers may divide children into reading groups based on their. Additionally, 44.6% of all black pupils referred received corporal punishment, compared to only 21.7% of white pupils and 22.7% of Hispanic pupils” (p. 144). In other words, studies not designed primarily to examine development appeal to neighborhood-level influences on development in order to explain their findings. From birth, we are encouraged to achieve the goal of financial success. In this chapter we first examine patterns of female offending and the gender gap. In a survey of mental disorders in juvenile justice facilities, Timmons-Mitchell and colleagues (1997) compared the prevalence of disorders among a sample of males and females and found that the estimated prevalence of mental disorders among females was over three times that among males (84 versus 27 percent). For example, until 1969, abortion was illegal in Canada, meaning that hundreds of women died or were injured each year when they received illegal abortions (McLaren and McLaren 1997). While functionalist theories often emphasize crime and deviance associated with the underprivileged, there is in fact no clear evidence that crimes are committed disproportionately by the poor or lower classes. She was dragged from the cinema by two men who injured her knee, and she was then arrested, obliged to stay overnight in the male cell block, tried without counsel, and fined. aboriginal sentencing circles the involvement of aboriginal communities in the sentencing of aboriginal offenders, community-based sentencing offenders serve a conditional sentence in the community, usually by performing some sort of community service, compensatory social control a means of social control that obliges an offender to pay a victim to compensate for a harm committed, conciliatory social control a means of social control that reconciles the parties of a dispute and mutually restores harmony to a social relationship that has been damaged, consensus crimes serious acts of deviance about which there is near-unanimous public agreement, conflict crimes acts of deviance that may be illegal but about which there is considerable public disagreement concerning their seriousness, control theory theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society, corporate crime crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment, corrections system the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offences, court a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law, crime a behaviour that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions, crimes of accommodation crimes committed as ways in which individuals cope with conditions of oppression and inequality, criminal justice system an organization that exists to enforce a legal code, critical sociology looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and deviance, cultural deviance theory that suggests conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime, deviance a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms, differential association theory theory that states individuals learn deviant behaviour from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance, disciplinary social control  detailed continuous training, control, and observation of individuals to improve their capabilities, doubly deviant women (or other categories of individual) who break both laws and gender (or other) norms, examination the use of tests by authorities to assess, document, and know individuals, folkways norms based on everyday cultural customs like etiquette, formal sanctions sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced, government practices by which individuals or organizations seek to govern the behaviour of others or themselves, hate crimes attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics, informal sanctions sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions, labelling theory the ascribing of a deviant behaviour to another person by members of society, law  norms that are specified in explicit codes and enforced by government bodies, legal codes codes that maintain formal social control through laws, master status a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual, moral entrepreneur  an individual  or group who, in the service of its own interests,  publicizes and problematizes “wrongdoing” and has the power to create and enforce rules to penalize wrongdoing, moral panic an expanding cycle of deviance, media-generated public fears, and police repression, mores  serious moral injunctions or taboos that are broadly recognized in a society, negative sanctions punishments for violating norms, nonviolent crimes crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force, normalization  the process by which norms are used to differentiate, rank, and correct individual behaviour, normalizing society  a society that uses continual observation, discipline, and correction of its subjects to exercise social control, panopticon Jeremy Bentham’s “seeing machine” that became the model for the ideal prison, penal social control a means of social control that prohibits certain social behaviours and responds to violations with punishment, police a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level, positive sanctions rewards given for conforming to norms, power elite a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources, primary deviance a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others, psychopathy a personality disorder characterized by anti-social behaviour, diminished empathy, and lack of inhibitions, racial profiling  the singling out of a particular racial group for extra policing, recidivism  the likelihood for people to be arrested again after an initial arrest, restorative justice conferencing   focuses on establishing a direct, face-to-face connection between the offender and the victim, secondary deviance a change in a person’s self-concept and behaviour after his or her actions are labelled as deviant by members of society, secondary victimization  after an initial victimization, secondary victimization is incurred through criminal justice processes, self-report study collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews, social control the regulation and enforcement of norms, social deviations  deviant acts that are not illegal but are widely regarded as harmful, social disorganization theory theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control, social diversions acts that violate social norms but are generally regarded as harmless, social order an arrangement of practices and behaviours on which society’s members base their daily lives, sociopathy a personality disorder characterized by anti-social behaviour, diminished empathy, and lack of inhibitions, strain theory theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals, street crime crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces, surveillance various means used to make the lives and activities of individuals visible to authorities, therapeutic social control a means of social control that uses therapy to return individuals to a normal state, traditional aboriginal justice centres on healing and building community rather than retribution, twin myths of rape the notion that women lie about sexual assault out of malice toward men and women will say “no” to sexual relations when they really mean “yes”, victimless crime activities against the law that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them, violent crimes (also known as “crimes against a person”) based on the use of force or the threat of force, white-collar crime crimes committed by high status or privileged members of society. 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